Subjects: Other Disciplines >> Synthetic discipline submitted time 2023-10-09 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Learning by enacting is a generative learning activity that allows students to engage in task-relevant movements, such as manipulating objects. There are different theories to explain learning by enacting: embodied cognition theory and generative learning theory support the positive effect while cognitive load theory provides evidence for negative effect of learning by enacting. This comprehensive review of previous empirical studies aims to draw conclusions regarding the effectiveness of learning by enacting and explore the potential for future research. On retention test, a majority of the reviewed studies (11 of 13 studies, 85%) found that enactment could improve retention test scores, while a smaller proportion (2 of 13 studies, 15%) did not find a facilitation effect. The median effect size for enactment facilitating retention test performance was d = 0.57. When comparing physical enactment (experimental group) to virtual enactment (control group), 2 (50%) of 4 studies demonstrated that the physical enactment group outperformed the virtual enactment group on retention tests, while the other half found lower retention scores for the physical enactment group. The median effect size for physical enactment facilitating retention test performance, compared to virtual enactment, was d = 0.01. On transfer test, most studies (17 of 20 studies, 85%) found that enactment could improve transfer test scores, while a smaller proportion (2 of 20 studies, 10%) did not find a facilitation effect. 1 (5%) of 20 studies showed that learning by enacting decreased learners' transfer scores. The median effect size for learning by enacting facilitating transfer test performance was d = 0.63. When examining the effects of different types of learning by enacting on transfer tests, a minority of studies (3 of 23 studies, 13%) found better transfer test scores in physical enactment conditions than in virtual enactment conditions. While 4 (17%) of 23 studies found lower transfer scores for the physical enactment group. The majority of studies (16 of 23 studies, 70%) did not find differences between the two types of learning by enacting. The median effect size for physical enactment facilitating transfer test performance, compared to virtual enactment, was d = 0.01. On subjective experience, only five studies compared conditions with and without learning by enacting and measured subjective experiences. One study found that learning by enacting increased students' learning confidence. Two studies explored perceived cognitive load during learning by enacting, and three other studies measured learning interest (d = 0.21), but none found significant effects of learning by enacting on these subjective experiences. When comparing physical enactment and virtual enactment, four studies measured learning confidence. Half of the studies found that students in the physical enactment group perceived higher learning confidence than those in the virtual enactment group, while the other half found no difference. The median effect size for physical enactment improving learning confidence, compared to virtual enactment, was d = 0.28. Additionally, in the studies comparing physical enactment and virtual enactment, four studies measured cognitive load. Half of the studies found that physical enactment decreased cognitive load compared to virtual enactment, while the other half found no difference. The median effect size for physical enactment increasing cognitive load, compared to virtual enactment, was d = -0.16. Furthermore, two studies measured learners' learning interest, with both finding that physical enactment induced higher learning interest than virtual enactment. The median effect size for physical enactment increasing learning interest, compared to virtual enactment, was d = 0.40. These findings generally support the embodied cognitive theory and generative learning theory, suggesting that learning by enacting can be an effective method for improving retention and transfer test performance. Further research needs to optimize learning by enacting, identify influencing factors, and integrate and verify the theories that support this pedagogical approach
Subjects: Other Disciplines >> Synthetic discipline submitted time 2023-10-09 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Short video indulgence refers to an individual’s compulsive and uncontrollable consumption of short videos, leading to significant behavioral or attention impairments, and subsequently causing difficulties in interpersonal relationships, learning, and/or work adaptation. With the continuous expansion of the short video user base and the trend towards younger groups, threats of short video indulgence to users’ physical and mental health have aroused extensive attention. From a human-computer interaction perspective, we synthesized and delineated the relevant factors contributing to the occurrence of short video indulgence. The objective is to formulate a comprehensive framework delineating the intricate mechanism that underpins the phenomenon of short video indulgence, thereby shedding light on the intricacies involved in its developmental process. At first, in order to explore the delineation between short video usage and indulgence, we categorized short video usage into “instrumental” and “ritualistic” forms. Instrumental usage refers to user behavior driven by specific goals or needs, where short videos serve as tools or means to achieve particular objectives. Ritualistic usage refers to user behavior without a specific objective, where short videos become habitual behaviors associated with particular contexts, times, or situations. The transition from conventional utilization of short videos to the state of short video indulgence appears to encompass a notable shift in usage behavior, evolving from a utilitarian “instrumental” function to a more “ritualistic” engagement.After that, the present work formulates a conceptual framework delineating the mechanisms underlying the onset of short video indulgence, delving into the domains of human-computer interaction and susceptibility traits. The first section encompasses four facets: information technology, content provision, human-computer interaction, and user experience. Their salient characteristics encompass technological advancement, content richness, interactive efficiency, and user immersion. Furthermore, propelled by recommendation algorithms, users’ engagement with short videos becomes increasingly fortified. The second section systematically expounds the susceptibility factors contributing to short video indulgence. The four categories of unique susceptibility traits align with the four stages of interactive mechanisms, while the categories represented by common susceptibility traits have an inducing effect on general addictive behaviors. Considering the analogous nature of short video indulgence to general online indulgence, the unique and common susceptibility traits exhibit mutual intersection and overlap. Overall, the role of interactive mechanisms lies in arousing susceptibility traits, rendering individuals more susceptible to allure and ensnarement in a cycle of addictive behaviors. Simultaneously, susceptibility traits amplify users’ responsiveness and vulnerability to inducing factors. The multifaceted components within the realm of human-computer interaction, propelled by recommendation algorithms, intricately intertwine with users’ susceptibility traits, driving the transformation of users’ engagement with short videos from an “instrumental” to a “ritualistic” approach, ultimately leading to the emergence of short video indulgence. This framework seeks to illuminate the genesis and progression of short video indulgence, offering researchers in this domain a comprehensive conceptual structure to foster the scientific governance of short video indulgence.Subsequently, in order to achieve a deeper understanding of the mechanism behind short video indulgence, we offered theoretical interpretations of short video indulgence from cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social perspectives. The dual process theory, opponent process theory, uses and gratifications theory and social shaping of technology theory were employed to elucidate the process of short video indulgence formation.Finally, this study concludes by summarizing the existing shortcomings in the current field of research. The points are concluded as follows: 1) The research methods are limited, there should be a diversification of research perspectives; 2) Insufficient attention to technology emphasizes the need to emphasize improvements in technology that contribute to addiction; 3) The mechanism of formation is unclear, there should be a deepening of the research into the mechanisms of occurrence; 4) Inadequate research on user characteristics highlights the need to focus on susceptibility factor studies.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： As a generative learning activity, learning by non-interactive teaching refers to learners play the role of teachers and teach what they have learned to others, and the activity is designed to help learners actively engage in knowledge building and improve their academic performance. For example, learners face a video camera to explain the learning material to imaginary, non-present peers in their minds (i.e., recording an instructional video). Given the vastly different ways in which learning by non-interactive teaching was implemented (e.g., video, audio, and text), the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching in facilitating learning might be different. By summarizing the relevant studies, it was found that learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form with a tutor figure (e.g. video) was more effective in improving learner’s performance (d immediate comprehension = 0.56, d delayed comprehension = 0.63, d immediate transfer = 0.35, and d delayed transfer = 0.76) compared with simple learning activities such as restudy and retrieval practice, which was probably a better implementation. Learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form (e.g. audio only, d immediate comprehension = 0.09 and d immediate transfer = 0.02) or written form (e.g. text, d immediate comprehension = -0.16, d delayed comprehension = 0.39, d immediate transfer = 0.08, and d delayed transfer = 0.19) without a tutor figure had a smaller positive effect on learning outcomes. Learners with non-interactive teaching also experienced higher motivation (d = 0.44) and enjoyment (d = 0.76) and were willing to invest more mental effort (d = 0.47). The retrieval practice hypothesis and the generative learning hypothesis focused on different subcomponents of cognitive processing (e.g., retrieval, generation, or monitoring) to explain the positive effects of learning by non-interactive teaching on learning, respectively. The social presence hypothesis emphasized that social presence might facilitate whole cognitive processing and thus improved learning. Our results supported these three hypotheses to some extent. In addition, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) may provide a supplementary explanation for differences in the effectiveness of different implementations of learning by non-interactive teaching. On the one hand, learning by non-interactive teaching (e.g., video) might successfully create teaching situation that stimulated a moderate sense of social presence and leaded learners to be more engaged and think more deeply about the material, i.e., increased their essential processing and generative processing, and thus facilitated learning. On the other hand, learning by non-interactive teaching (e.g., text) might distract learners from focusing too much on the typos, the standardization and rigorousness of written language, i.e., increased their extraneous processing. Due to the inherently high demands for processing capacity in generative activities, too much extraneous processing might cause learners' limited processing capacity being insufficient for adequate essential processing and generative processing, which in turn impaired learning. While learning by non-interactive teaching in the audio-only format might neither successfully facilitate learning with essential processing and generative processing because of the weaker teaching situation created, nor hinder learning with extraneous processing because of the automated spoken language. Research is needed to test and integrate theories, identify boundary conditions, and enhance the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching in the future.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The eye gaze of instructors is an important but easily overlooked element in video-based learning environments. The importance of the potential roles of eye gaze can be explained by several theories, such as parasocial theory and social agent theory. These theories suggest that an instructor’s eye gaze in video-based learning environments can promote learning. Other theories such as cognitive theory of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory suggest that an instructor’s eye gaze may hinder learning. While these theories predict the effect of an instructor’s eye gaze differently, in this review article we found inconsistencies in several empirical studies. First, the retention and transfer tests are mainly used to gauge the learning outcome. On retention tests, 9 (60%) of 15 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' retention test, and 6 studies (40%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' performance on retention tests. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated retention test was d = 0.41. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated retention tests were d = 0.28 and d = 0.42. On the transfer test, 6 (40%) of 15 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' transfer test, 1 study (7%) shows that eye gaze can reduce students’ performance on a transfer test, and 8 studies (53%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' performance on transfer tests. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated transfer tests was d = 0.39. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated transfer tests were d = 0.24 and d = 0.42. The above study showed a small facilitative effect of eye gaze on retention and transfer tests. Second, in terms of attentional processing, previous studies have focused on the learner's fixation times on learning materials. 6 (38%) of 16 studies show that eye gaze in the video can increase students' fixation times on learning material, 7 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can reduce students’ fixation times on learning material, and 6 studies (38%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' fixation times on learning material. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated fixation times on learning material was d = 0.06. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated fixation times were d = 0.19 and d =﹣0.14.The above studies suggest that the effect of eye gaze on attentional processing is relatively weak. Third, in terms of subjective experience, parasocial interactions and cognitive load were mainly explored. For the parasocial interaction, 5 (56%) of 9 studies show that eye gaze in the video can improve students' parasocial interaction, and 4 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can hinder students' retention test. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated parasocial interaction was d = 0.35. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated parasocial interaction were d = 0.04 and d = 0.37. Regarding cognitive load, 3 (33%) of 9 studies show that eye gaze in the video can reduce students' cognitive load, and 6 studies (44%) show that eye gaze can increase students' cognitive load. The median effect size for the eye gaze facilitated cognitive load was d =﹣0.02. The median effect sizes for the guided gaze and direct gaze facilitated cognitive load were d = -0.03 and d = 0.09. The above study showed a small facilitative effect of eye gaze on parasocial interaction, but a very weak effect on cognitive load. In addition, the above findings support the parasocial interaction theory, social agency theory, and signaling principle, but not the cognitive theory of multimedia learning or the cognitive load theory. Future research needs to consider the moderating role of the type of eye gaze, facial expressions, prior knowledge experience, and the nature of the learned material. Further exploration is needed for the cognitive processing of eye gaze affecting learning and the related cognitive neural activity.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： In video-based learning environments, the roles of real human teachers are important. There are different theoretical explanations for their roles, such as parasocial theory, social presence theory and social agent theory. These theories suggest that real human teachers in video-based learning environments promote learning; Other theories such as cognitive theory of multimedia learning and cognitive load theory believe that real human teachers may hinder learning. By examining past research, we found that teachers have a weak effect on the promotion of video-based learning, specifically the week effect are on knowledge retention (d = 0.23) and knowledge transfer (d = 0.1); We also found that, teachers have moderate and large influence on subjective experience of video learning, especially on perceived learning (d = 0.49), learning interest (d = 0.5), and learning satisfaction (d = 2.21); Another finding from the literature review is that with the presence of teachers in video-based learning, learners may decrease their attentions to learning material (d = -2.02). Our review of the literature suggests that future research still needs to pay close attention to the presentation of human teachers as a function of learner characteristics, learning material characteristics, and measurement methods in video learning.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： As one of the ways to present oneself in virtual environments, avatars in online games exert an important influence on players' cognition and behavior in both virtual and real life. The self-reference effect suggests that materials related to oneself are easier to remember than materials related to others. Due to the manipulability and high emotional involvement of avatars, players may feel close to their avatars and can sometimes even be integrated with them. Therefore, for game players, avatar-related information may have the same processing priority as self-related information. In the current study, we designed two experiments to investigate the processing priority of avatars in online games. Experiment 1 recruited 40 players of League of Legends (LOL) to investigate the processing priority of avatar reference in online games from the perspective of memory. This experiment adopted the R/K paradigm to compare memory performance under three different reference conditions (avatar-name, self-name and familiar other's name). Experiment 2 recruited 20 players of LOL to investigate the processing priority of avatar-related information in online games from the perspective of neural mechanisms, with event related potential (ERP) technology. This experiment adopted the oddball paradigm to compare the brain mechanisms of three kinds of stimulations (the names of familiar avatar, familiar other from the same country and familiar other from other country). Results of behavioral experiment (Experiment 1) showed that: (1) The total recognition rate, R response recognition rate, and discrimination d′ in the avatar-reference condition were much better than those in the other-reference condition, which preliminarily suggests that there were memory processing priorities of avatar reference in online games. (2) When referring to self-reference, the total recognition rate, response recognition rate, and discriminationd′ were much better than those in the conditions of the avatar-reference and other-reference. In summary, the preliminary results of Experiment 1 confirmed the superiority of avatar reference in memory performance, but the avatar-reference effect was not as strong as the self-reference effect. Results of ERP (Experiment 2) showed that in the P2 (160~260 ms) processing stage, greater amplitude was induced when processing the name of the avatar than that of familiar others from a different country. In terms of P3 (370~600 ms), greater amplitude was induced when processing the name of the avatar than the names of familiar others from the same country and other country. Moreover, compared with processing the names of familiar others from other countries, the latency was shorter when processing the avatar's name. Both behavioral and ERPs results indicate that there exists processing priority of avatar-reference effect in both memory and neural mechanisms. Specifically, compared with familiar others, online game players have processing priority for information related to avatars. The present study expands the theory of reference effect and provides evidence for the processing priority of the avatar-reference in online games from cognitive neuroscience.
submitted time 2023-03-25 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： As a generative learning activity, learning by non-interactive teaching refers to learners play the role of teachers and teach what they have learned to others, and the activity is designed to help learners actively engage in knowledge building and improve their academic performance. For example, learners face a video camera to explain the learning material to imaginary, non-present peers in their minds (i.e., recording an instructional video). Given the vastly different ways in which learning by non-interactive teaching was implemented (e.g., video, audio, and text), the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching in facilitating learning might be different. By summarizing the relevant studies, it was found that learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form with a tutor figure (e.g. video) was more effective in improving learner’s performance (d immediate comprehension = 0.56, d delayed comprehension = 0.63, d immediate transfer = 0.35, and d delayed transfer = 0.76) compared with simple learning activities such as restudy and retrieval practice, which was probably a better implementation. Learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form (e.g. audio only, d immediate comprehension = 0.09 and d immediate transfer = 0.02) or written form (e.g. text, d immediate comprehension = -0.16, d delayed comprehension = 0.39, d immediate transfer = 0.08, and d delayed transfer = 0.19) without a tutor figure had a smaller positive effect on learning outcomes. Learners with non-interactive teaching also experienced higher motivation (d = 0.44) and enjoyment (d = 0.76) and were willing to invest more mental effort (d = 0.47). The retrieval practice hypothesis and the generative learning hypothesis focused on different subcomponents of cognitive processing (e.g., retrieval, generation, or monitoring) to explain the positive effects of learning by non-interactive teaching on learning, respectively. The social presence hypothesis emphasized that social presence might facilitate whole cognitive processing and thus improved learning. Our results supported these three hypotheses to some extent. In addition, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) may provide a supplementary explanation for differences in the effectiveness of different implementations of learning by non-interactive teaching. On the one hand, learning by non-interactive teaching (e.g., video) might successfully create teaching situation that stimulated a moderate sense of social presence and leaded learners to be more engaged and think more deeply about the material, i.e., increased their essential processing and generative processing, and thus facilitated learning. On the other hand, learning by non-interactive teaching (e.g., text) might distract learners from focusing too much on the typos, the standardization and rigorousness of written language, i.e., increased their extraneous processing. Due to the inherently high demands for processing capacity in generative activities, too much extraneous processing might cause learners' limited processing capacity being insufficient for adequate essential processing and generative processing, which in turn impaired learning. While learning by non-interactive teaching in the audio-only format might neither successfully facilitate learning with essential processing and generative processing because of the weaker teaching situation created, nor hinder learning with extraneous processing because of the automated spoken language. Research is needed to test and integrate theories, identify boundary conditions, and enhance the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching in the future.
Subjects: Psychology >> Educational Psychology submitted time 2022-12-05
Abstract：
Learning by non-interactive teaching refers to learners play the role of teachers and teach what they have learned to others. The retrieval practice hypothesis, the generative learning hypothesis, and the social presence hypothesis explained the positive effects of learning by non-interactive teaching from the perspectives of memory consolidation, generative cognitive processing, and social presence, respectively. Summarizing the relevant studies, it was found that different implementations of learning by non-interactive teaching promoted learning differently, with learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form with a tutor figure (e.g. video) was more effective in improving learners' immediate comprehension, immediate transfer, delayed comprehension, and delayed transfer performance compared to simple learning activities such as restudy and retrieval practice, which was probably a better implementation. Learning by non-interactive teaching in oral form (e.g. audio only) or written form (e.g. text) without a tutor figure had a smaller positive effect on learning outcomes. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning may provide a supplementary explanation for differences in the effectiveness of different implementations of learning by non-interactive teaching. Learners who learned by non-interactive teaching also experienced higher motivation and enjoyment and were willing to invest more mental effort. Future research is needed to test and integrate theories, identify boundary conditions, and enhance the effectiveness of learning by non-interactive teaching.
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