Subjects: Other Disciplines >> Synthetic discipline submitted time 2023-10-09 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The phenomenon in which an individual repeatedly performs an already completed prospective memory (PM) intention (commission errors), or the completed intention interferes with the performance of the ongoing task are the aftereffects of PM. On the one hand, participants may perform the completed-PM intention erroneously when encountering completed-PM targets. Conversely, participants may not have made commission errors when encountering the completed-PM targets. They may hesitate to respond to them, which would interfere with the ongoing task. The effects on the aftereffects of event-based PM have been explored in terms of PM task characteristics, ongoing task characteristics, and individual traits, but, to the best of our knowledge, no studies have systematically determined the effects of task characteristics and individual traits on the aftereffects of event-based PM. Moreover, previous efforts to organize the cognitive and neural mechanisms of such aftereffects have been inadequate, mostly focusing on one aspect of the formation or deactivation, without discussing the cognitive and neural mechanisms in detail.Based on the multiple processing theory of PM, a literature review revealed that task characteristics (PM task characteristics, ongoing task characteristics, task context) and individual traits modulate the aftereffects of event-based PM. Combining PM task characteristics, salient and focused cues, and increasing the strength of the cue-intention association promote spontaneous retrieval of completed-PM intentions. On the other hand, semantic cues may promote continuous monitoring of the aforementioned intentions, and both types of cues are susceptible to the aftereffects of event-based PM formation. The similarity of habitual PM tasks and the types of PM cues in the active- and completed-PM phases usually promotes the automatic processing of completed-PM intentions, which is more likely to facilitate the formation of the aftereffects of event-based PM. Regarding ongoing task characteristics, a high ongoing task cognitive load usually occupies more cognitive resources and is susceptible to the formation of the aftereffects of event-based PM. The match between the active- and completed-PM phases of the ongoing task promotes the spontaneous retrieval of completed-PM intentions, leading to the aftereffects of event-based PM. Task context is also related to the aftereffects of event-based PM. Increasing the time delay between the active- and completed-PM phases decreases the activation state of completed intentions and promotes the deactivation of intentional representations. Increasing the task load between the two phases may interfere with the extraction of completed-PM intentions. The cognitive aging associated with aging makes it difficult to deactivate completed-PM intentions and facilitates the formation of the aftereffects of event-based PM. Executive control and output monitoring abilities promote the deactivation of completed-PM intentions. Action-oriented individuals are better at initiating new intentions and suppressing completed-PM intentions, and are more likely to promote the deactivation of the aftereffects of event-based PM.Theoretical explanations of the processing mechanisms of the aftereffects of event-based PM include automatic, controlled, extraction-inhibition, stop-tag, and dual processing, and a dynamic multiprocess framework. Automatic processing is subdivided into reflexive-associative and discrepancy-plus-search processing, whereas controlled processing can be divided into strategic monitoring and inhibition processing. In the completed phase, individuals repeatedly execute completed-PM intentions, or such intentions interfere with the ongoing task to form the aftereffects of event-based PM. In particular, encountering completed-PM intentions and spontaneously extracting them is more likely to generate commission errors. Continuous monitoring of such intentions during the completed-PM phase leads to extended reaction times to the original PM cues and ongoing tasks, which can interfere with the ongoing tasks. The formation of aftereffects of event-based PM is more closely related to automatic and strategic monitoring processing. In the completed-PM phase, participants are usually told not to execute the original PM response when they encounter the original PM cues. This process involves inhibiting the extraction and execution of completed-PM intentions. Both stop-tag processing, dual processing, and dynamic multiprocess frameworks involve the idea of inhibiting processing. Moreover, to deactivate completed-PM intentions, cognitive resources would be invested in inhibiting them or forming a state of readiness not to execute when such intentions are encountered during the completed-PM phase. This demonstrates that the deactivation of aftereffects of event-based PM is more dependent on inhibitory processing. The processing mechanisms of the aftereffects of event-based PM need to be explored in-depth. Furthermore, future research should increase the investigation of aftereffects of PM in different types as well as natural contexts, and focus on exploring strategies to reduce the aftereffects of PM. Key words
Subjects: Other Disciplines >> Synthetic discipline submitted time 2023-10-09 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The left visual word form area (VWFA) of the brain in adults is more sensitive to orthographic information, whereas the right fusiform face area (FFA) is preferentially involved in the processing of facial information. The cognitive neural processing mechanism of the competitive development of the complementary pattern of hemispheric lateralization in word and face recognition is systematically examined using the neuronal recycling hypothesis and the distributed account of the hemispheric organization, combined with the multidimensional computational model composed of posterior-anterior axis and medial-lateral axis in the fusiform gyrus (FG). The posterior-anterior axis distinguishes regions within a domain and is associated with hierarchical transformation. The medial-lateral axis differentiates regions across domains. Along the posterior-anterior axis in FG, area FG2, which is posterior lateral to FG, receives mainly bottom-up incoming information from the early visual cortex. Additionally, both word and face recognition require fine discrimination between highly similar stimuli, relying on high-acuity visual information from the fovea. Therefore, word and face representation should share processing resources for early perception and compete for neural space in FG2. These areas are sculpted further over development and begin to emerge being labelled the VWFA-1 in the left hemisphere (lateral to the medial-lateral axis) and the FFA-1 in the right hemisphere (medial to the medial-lateral axis). Moreover, as learning to read words and face recognition experience accumulated, the processing of word or face information transformed from VWFA-1 and FFA-1 in FG2 to VWFA-2 (lateral to the medial-lateral axis) and FFA-2 (medial to the medial-lateral axis) in FG4 located in the lateral middle part of FG, respectively. Because learning to read words improves the connectivity between VWFA-2 and the left hemisphere language network, this top-down lateralization modulation strengthens the competitive processing between words and faces, resulting in stronger leftward lateralization of VWFA-2 and accelerating rightward lateralization of FFA-2. At the same time, the face learning experience also improves the right-sided connectivity between FFA-2 and related brain networks, and this top-down modulation results in stronger right-lateralized FFA-2.Future studies should examine the following five aspects. First, some researchers propose a revised model of the neuronal recycling hypothesis, known as the blocking model, in which they suppose that in literate children, the progressive dedication of an increasing number of neuronal patches to words in the left FG prevents the expansion of the nearby object and face patches, resulting in face recognition being gradually replaced by right FG. Therefore, future studies could use high-resolution (<1mm) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine whether words directly compete with faces or block the development of faces. Second, while cytoarchitectonic similarities between FG2 and FG4 are found, the differences between them may help explain the fine-scale functional heterogeneity of FG. Based on differences in cell types, receptor densities, laminar distribution patterns, synaptic connections, and myelination between FG2 and FG4, further research could provide insight into the functional role of both fusiform areas subserving face and word recognition. Third, research has shown that preschool children's learning to read Chinese characters requires the right hemisphere to distinguish character form, and use the left hemisphere to access orthography and phonological and semantic information, so their early reading experience may compete with faces for processing resources in the right and left hemispheres. It is necessary to adopt the intertemporal study design of preschool and school-age children and use event-related potentials (ERPs) with high temporal resolution and fMRI with high spatial resolution to systematically investigate the unique mechanism of children's early reading experience affecting the competitive processing of Chinese characters and faces. Fourth, the development of right-lateralized face recognition may be influenced by factors other than learning to read words. The development of right-lateralized face recognition will experience a long time delay, which is influenced not only by brain development and learning to read but also by the gradual accumulation of facial experience. Therefore, future studies should not only focus on how learning to read words competes with face representation for processing resources in left FG, but also examine how face perception experience affects the right-lateralized development of FFA and its processing mechanism in competition with other cortical areas for space resources. Finally, visual numbers and musical notations are also cultural inventions, and learning to read them can cause brain plasticity changes similar to words. The brain structures and functional networks of learning to read words, numbers, and musical notations are both separated and overlapped, competing and coordinating with each other. Importantly, children can learn to read these three visual symbols synchronously or asynchronously. Therefore, exploring the temporal dynamics and brain mechanisms of the interaction between children's learning to read words, numbers, and musical notations not only has theoretical significance for deepening the understanding of brain plasticity of cultural learning, but also has practical significance for guiding the early teaching of language, mathematics, and music.
Subjects: Other Disciplines >> Synthetic discipline submitted time 2023-10-09 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The influence of music on language is a widely researched topic and an important issue in interdisciplinary research. In recent years, research evidence from behavioral and cognitive neuroscience has further shown that musical experience can be transferred across domains to second language acquisition, which is manifested in the promotion of second language processing in three aspects: (1) musical experience can enhance the understanding of a second language, specifically the perception and vocabulary acquisition of the second language. Future research could further take the types and duration of musical training as variables for the aim of revealing such a transfer effect more precisely; (2) musical experience can facilitate the production of a second language, which may be related to different types of musical experience and dimensions (e.g., pitch perception and rhythm perception). However, current experimental tasks are relatively limited, usually using speech imitation tasks and phonology scoring tasks, and future studies can investigate the relationship between individual second language production ability and musical experience in scene dialogue and actual communication; (3) musical experience can promote second language learning and evidence has been found among different age groups with regard to vocabulary and syntax learning. However, there is still insufficient research on exploring the impact of early musical experience on second language learning for adults at different ages. As research deepens, some researchers have begun to explore the internal mechanisms of music in second language processing. Their research conclusion can be summarized into following two pathways: (1) musical experience promotes language processing by enhancing the processing of shared acoustic clues between music and language; (2) musical experience improves individual general cognitive processing abilities, especially auditory attention and memory, thereby enhancing language processing abilities. However, it should be noted that existing research on mechanisms has mostly revealed the commonalities of three levels of music on second language processing and has not yet deeply explored the possible differences on these three level mechanisms. Finally, we point out that existing research still has some limitations and they can be directions for future research: (1) The study of how musical experience enhances second language processing can be further explored from language, music, and participant group perspectives, such as enriching the study of musical experience on second language production and learning, conducting more rigorous variable controls when examining participants' musical experience(for instance, richness of the musical environment of childhood can be an important factor to be considered when assessing the individual musical experience) and studying special groups with language processing disorders; (2) It is necessary to strictly distinguish the role of innate musical talent and acquired musical experience in research. We suggest longitudinal studies to be used more frequently in the research. By comparing the performance of individuals with different musical talents in second language processing before and after receiving music learning, longitudinal studies can be helpful to clarify the internal mechanism of innate musical talent and acquired musical training affecting second language processing; (3) Explore the extent of the relationship and differences between musical experience and second language processing as well as native language processing. Some studies have found that musical experience may have different effects on the understanding of native language and second language, revealing that the promotion of musical experience on language processing may be moderated by language familiarity. Future research can extend to the fields of language production and learning. In the process of experimental design, it is necessary to combine the characteristics of native language and second language, set up appropriate experimental materials and tasks, and avoid the ceiling effect in the mother tongue processing as well as the floor effect in the second language processing. At the same time, the age selection of participants also needs to be carefully considered.Overall, this article can provide some insights for the interdisciplinary study of music and language at the behavioral and cognitive neuroscience levels. Meanwhile, the topic also has application values in education and clinical treatment.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Active maternal behavior refers to a set of motivated behaviors that promote female mammals to effectively care for the pups during their lactation, so it has a vital important role for the survival and behavioral development in pups. Evidence has shown that the active maternal behavior in rodents could dynamically change from the onset and maintenance in early postpartum to the decline in late postpartum, which reflects female rodents’ adaptation to the stage changes of incentive values in pups. This process not only involves in the pathway of medial preoptic area (MPOA)-ventral tegmental area (VTA)-nucleus accumbens (NA)-ventral pallidum (VP) opened by hormone profile at parturition, but also requires the basolateral amygdala (BLA), medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC), and other areas to real-timely regulate this pathway. Studies on the dynamic changes about active maternal behavior and its neural mechanisms in lactating rodents could deepen our knowledge about the evolution and early development of behaviors, and also be helpful for the clinical intervention to postpartum depression in humans. This review illustrates the relationship between incentive values in pups and dynamic changes in active maternal behavior with evidence used by conditioned place preference (CPP), then systematically elaborates the neural mechanisms underlying dynamic changes of active maternal behavior, and finally discusses several major issues or future research directions.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： System justification theory proposes that people have the natural tendency to see the current sociopolitical systems as fair and legitimate, which is called system justification. But what are the roots of system justification? Researchers have provided explanations from three distinct perspectives. The cognitive dissonance perspective posits that the tendency to justify the current system exists because people want to alleviate those bad feelings which often arise when they feel the system cannot meet their need. The second perspective is compensatory control, which argues that system justification is derived from a sense of lacking control. By a system-legitimating process one can find a sense of order to cope with the threat of personal control. The third perspective is social cognitive process, which proposes that people express a salient and inherent attributional tendency when explaining socioeconomic disparities. It is the attributional style that serves as a main source of system justification. The future study should include explanatory variables from different theoretical perspectives in one study, draw on the findings of similar fields to explore other possible mechanisms, seek sources of system justification peculiar to Chinese culture, and explore the application issues based on distinguishing positive and negative system justification.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The relationship between age and route knowledge acquisition is a significant issue in space and cognitive aging area. Old people demonstrate various performances of cognitive aging when confronting different path learning environments. The previous researches focused on the difference of age-related route knowledge acquisition ability, which mainly supported the theory of cognitive aging decline. However, recent studies have revealed that the aged might remain spatial cognitive compensation ability. Therefore, based on the review and reflection of the former literature, this review integrates the manifestation and mechanism of cognitive aging of route knowledge acquisition, in order to explore the underlying internal factors and external effective measures to alleviate spatial cognitive aging.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Prosociality is a central feature of human beings and a major focus of research across the natural and social sciences. Most theoretical models of prosociality share a common assumption: Humans are instinctively selfish, and prosocial behaviors require exerting reflective control over these basic instincts. However, the intuitive model of prosociality has recently contradicted this view. This model assumes that the understanding of prosociality should be revised to include the possibility that, in many cases, prosocial behavior -- instead of requiring active control over our impulses -- represents an impulse of its own. The intuitive model of prosociality is supported by at least three markers: (1) behavioral signs of automaticity, (2) neural signatures of reward seeking, and (3) early development. Furthermore, based on social heuristics hypothesis, we explained human’s intuitive prosociality and analyzed the context and the individual factors which affect human’s intuitive prosocial behavior. These observations provided a new perspective for researchers and challenged them to reconsider the roots of prosociality.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Wise people are both selfless and eudaemonic. Research adopting the social-ecological approach has found individual’s ability to reason wisely across interpersonal and societal conflicts can be fostered by ego-decentering mindset, while research grounded in the person-centric approach has demonstrated the positive relation between wisdom and eudaimonia. Based on the integration of the two approaches, a model of self-based processes of wisdom was proposed. This model is characterized by a self-reinforcing circle. More specifically, selflessness boosts practical wisdom in daily life, which will bring the state of eudaimonia. In turn, this state of mind linked with eudaimonia will reinforce the selflessness. Lastly, the influence of different types of self across cultures and dynamic relationship between eudaimonia and wisdom are needed to be further investigated.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Recently, researchers in the field of social class psychology have attached great importance to the perspective of subjective class. This is highlighted by emphasizing the subjective class component in the social class concept. According to this approach, a person's social class includes both the objective social resources they control (i.e., the objective class) and their perception of their own social status (i.e., the subjective class). In terms of theory, measurement, design, and topic selection, research based on this theoretical orientation tends to focus on the investigation of issues related to subjective class. In theory, subjective class, as a personal perception reflecting social class, is considered to be able to reflect a person's social class level comprehensively and effectively. Moreover, by understanding social class as a hierarchical notion, this theoretical orientation provides the foundation for quantitative research in the psychology of social class. Conceptually, subjective class is also considered to be better able to reflect the effect of social class on individuals’ psychological and behavioral exhibition, which not only promotes the simplification of social class measurement but also makes social class (i.e., a traditional sociological variable) more psychologically explained. It is of great significance to the development of research in this field. In terms of the method, researchers use a lot of experimental methods to examine the causal relationship between social class and a dependent variable by manipulating subjective class. This makes up for the insufficiency of previous studies on objective classes that could only reveal correlations and provide methodological assistance for drawing key conclusions in this field. In terms of research topics, the emphasis on subjective class has helped researchers to expand the scope of research in the psychology of social class. Themes such as the experience of social class, sign of social class, and perception of class mobility have all received more attention. Behind this series of research progress, the important foundational role of the orientation cannot be ignored. However, while this research orientation affirms the contributions of the above four aspects, the proposal of this idea has also led to certain negative effects. First, by only focusing on the subjective class attributes in the social class, or even equating the subjective class with the social class, this approach greatly reduces the rich connotation of the social class theoretically, and it cannot fully reflect the reality of this concept. Second, previous studies have found significant inconsistency between the concepts of subjective and objective class, which led to the risk of using subjective class as an operational definition of social class at the conceptual measurement level. Third, for the experiment of manipulating the subjective class, since the objective class of the subjects does not change with the experimental treatment, it is difficult to interpret the research results as the social class effect. Finally, because many studies focus on subjective class, it seems that the issue of social class has lost its original pluralistic and complex characteristics in the real society, and more of it has become the comparison between "higher" and "lower class." If we draw on the sociology research ideas, social class psychology can pay more attention to and reveal some problems in the process of social development. Based on the above advantages and disadvantages, future social class psychology research focusing on subjective class should consider further in-depth basic research to clarify the relationship between objective and subjective classes and their different predictive effects. Furthermore, a more detailed distinction can be made between subjective class and objective class. Similarly, more consideration should be given to combining the perspective of sociology to understand and respond to the problems of contemporary society based on specific social class groups in reality.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The Bouba-kiki effect (i.e., BK effect) indicates the mapping between phonemes and shape features. The innate theory and acquired theory have heated debates on the mechanism of the BK effect. The innate theory holds that sensitivity to sound symbolism is inborn. On the contrary, the acquired theory holds that sound symbolism is the product of linguistic experience. The above-mentioned theories are both supported by many studies and neither of them can completely refute the other. This suggests that none of these theories fully reveal the mechanisms of the emergence of sound symbolism. Therefore, the present review systematically reviews previous findings that support the innate and acquired theories on the mechanism of the BK effect, respectively. Then, the present review first proposes the hypothesis of the sensitive period of the language-related BK effect and reviews recent studies that have provided preliminary evidence for the sensitive period of the BK effect. In addition, the present review also reviews potential factors that may affect the sensitive period of the BK effect. Specifically, the present study holds that the BK effect has a sensitive period that is similar to the critical period of language. The BK effect may be influenced by linguistic experience and the distribution of arbitrariness in language. On one hand, the early language learning experience may enhance the sensitivity of infants toward the BK effect. However, with the increase of age and language experiences, the sensitivity of the sound symbolism for adults gradually decreases. On the other hand, children mainly learn symbolic vocabulary in the early stage of language learning and children’s sound symbolism sensitivity gradually increases in this stage. When the proportion of arbitrary vocabulary gradually increases, children’s sensitivity to the sound symbolism gradually decreases. Furthermore, to integrate the above debates, the present review proposes the innate and acquired interaction model for sound symbolism based on the sensitive period of the language-related BK effect. This model holds that sound symbolism is supported by innate mechanisms and acquired experiences. In other words, sound symbolism is simultaneously influenced by the plasticity of the brain and the accumulated language experiences. In this way, children may have an innate “sound symbolism cognitive structure,” which enables them to map and integrate multi-modal inputs. Therefore, children are sensitive to all potential sound symbolism. In the early stage of language learning, the iconicity in language is prominent. Meanwhile, the sound symbolism cognitive structure can be triggered by children’s language expression and the sound symbolism schema is built through assimilation during this period. This process increases the brain’s sensitivity to sound symbolism. However, with the increase of vocabularies, the arbitrariness of the form-meaning mappings also increases. When the sound symbolism cognitive structure fails to assimilate the new vocabulary, the arbitrary schema is built through accommodation. In the accommodation process, the brain’s sensitivity to sound symbolism gradually decreases. As mentioned above, assimilation and accommodation simultaneously participate in language learning. The difference between assimilation and accommodation is that accommodation is gradually enhanced during the whole language learning period, while assimilation is only gradually enhanced during the sensitive period of sound symbolism and gradually decreased after this period. Eventually, with the increase of age and language experiences, assimilation and accommodation reach a dynamic balance. In particular, the proportion of the language’s arbitrariness and iconicity gradually tends to be stable and the sound symbolism cognitive structure is adapted to the external information. As a result, assimilation and accommodation maintain a relatively balanced state. Finally, the present study proposes future research directions for the sensitive period of sound symbolism.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Ample statistical learning (SL) studies have shown that individuals can perform word segmentation by tracking the likelihood of syllable co-occurrences in continuous speech. The classic “exposure-test” paradigm was widely used in this field, in which participants were first exposed to an artificial language and then tested in a forced choice task to assess learning effects. Recently, research has shown that participants' linguistic background, including their phonological and lexical experience, may result in experience-dependent SL. After a systematic review, we also discuss the direction for future SL studies. Specifically, we suggest that for studies involving Mandarin native speakers, researchers should carefully examine the separate and combined effects of various linguistic experience in order to better understand statistical word segmentation.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Trust games were widely used as a classic paradigm of trust measurement. However, the accuracy of the results of the trust game had been questioned by scholars in the field all the time, making precise trust measurement an important topic for exploration. The controversy mainly includes the following two aspects. On the one hand, the appropriateness of the trust game paradigm has yet to be verified. The controversy over paradigm changes further reveals that social preferences and risk preferences might have an impact on the level of investment trust, thereby reducing the internal validity of the trust game. On the other hand, the correlation between the level of the investment trust in trust games and the trust measured by the survey is very low, which can be explained by differences in attitudes and behaviours, differences in measurement types, and the limitations of trust measured by the survey and trust game. Although trust game face with some controversy, in general, it is still a suitable method for trust measuring. Future research should focus on the following points: Verifying the scientificity of the changes in the paradigm of trust game; Clarifying the low correlation between trust game and trust measured by survey; Expanding the measurement dimensions of trust game; Improving the ecological validity of trust game.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： After an emergency occurs, inferring the cause of the incident and attributing responsibility is an essential characteristic of people’s psychological activities. Attribution of responsibility in emergencies refers to the public's cognitive tendency and attitude toward the inference of the cause of the incident. Further, it includes the assessment of the responsibility of the subject involved in the process of occurrence and handling. In adverse events, people have stronger motivations for attributing responsibility. It is a protection mechanism for individuals to find fault or accord blame for unfortunate events. This leads us to believe that disasters can be avoided if individuals or groups can determine the relationship between events and control the situation. Therefore, individuals need responsibility attribution after emergencies. The purpose and psychological significance of responsibility attribution are to meet the need to alleviate the sense of uncertainty and maintain a sense of control. The sense of uncertainty due to emergencies results in a need to explain exigencies in achieving cognitive closure. Through attribution of responsibility, people can obtain explanations regarding emergencies that occur, making such situations predictable. Conversely, the pursuit of certainty may lead to the public believing in conspiracy theories of adverse events. Responsibility attribution can also be used as a way to meet the needs of the people's order to compensate for the lack of sense of control. Simultaneously, the accountability or punishment of the offending party can make people feel controllable. Meeting people’s psychological needs depends on the strategies adopted by the responsible subject in dealing with the attribution of people’s responsibilities. These strategies can be divided into negative coping strategies that violate psychological needs and positive coping strategies that meet people’s psychological needs. For example, organizations to which fault is attributable may adopt negative, responsibility-avoidance behaviors to maintain a positive image and project moral values, which makes it more difficult for the public to get a clear picture of the incident. This further aggravates the public’s sense of uncertainty, and causes other negative effects. The situational crisis communication theory proposed by Coombs considers various crises. It provides targeted suggestions for coping strategies, but the approach pays less attention to the psychological needs of the public in the attribution of responsibility. Starting from the people’s psychological needs, we have proposed two principles for coping with responsibility attribution: 1) ensuring complete transparency of information to alleviate people’s sense of uncertainty, and 2) ensuring reasonable and orderly actions to increase people’s sense of control. Finally, we further provided suggestions for response strategies at different stages of the incident. In the initial stage, it is necessary to provide timely guidance information to establish security. In the mid-term, a reasonable explanation of the causality of the event should be provided to alleviate the sense of uncertainty. Further, the structure and order of various measures should be ensured to compensate for the sense of control. Later, detailed information needs to be released, including instructions and suggestions for future preventive measures, to achieve cognitive closure. We also discuss future research in this area. First, we can supplement the integrated empirical evidence on the relationship between psychological needs and accountability in emergencies. Second, we distinguish the characteristics of the public’s responsibility attribution and active response strategies in different types of emergencies. Third, we focus on the connection between responsibility attribution and other social-psychological variables. Finally, we explore practical strategies for the government in responding to the attribution of public responsibility based on Chinese society.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Public emergencies refer to social events that occur suddenly, cause, or may cause serious social harm and require emergency measures in dealing with them. Previous studies have focused on the psychological and behavioral responses of individuals during public emergencies. However, most of these studies have focused on describing psychological phenomena rather than exploring psychological mechanisms. Thus, the present article proposes that compensatory control theory can be used as a basic theoretical framework to understand a series of psychological and behavioral manifestations of individuals in the context of public emergencies. The core idea of this theory is that when individuals lack a sense of control, they tend to show a variety of reactions that have a common motivation; that is seeking structure. We analyzed the applicability of compensatory control theory to explain individuals’ psychological performance in the context of public emergencies from four perspectives. First, after major public emergencies occur, conspiracy theories on the cause of the event often follow. From the perspective of compensatory control theory, when individuals’ sense of control is threatened due to the occurrence of public emergencies, they tend to form conspiratorial thinking to some extent. Hence, they are eager to obtain a sense of order or structure to compensate. Since it is often difficult for authorities to immediately give a definitive answer about the cause of the incident, the conspiracy theory is often believed, which satisfies people’s search for causality and certainty. Second, during public emergencies, people tend to believe in and spread rumors. From the perspective of compensatory control theory, this can also be interpreted as individuals’ need to obtain a sense of structure brought about by deterministic information in a crisis, which leads to blind acceptance of unreliable information. Third, people exposed to public emergencies will also show stronger concern for moral issues, which, according to the compensatory control theory, is an individual’s search for certain social values. Further, the need for order and structure still matters when focusing on values. By emphasizing the objective standard of morality and strengthening the value that they believe in, people can achieve a sense of structure and order to some extent and thus, compensate for the lack of perceived control. Finally, in the context of public emergencies, there is another typical public behavior: irrational buying and hoarding of commodities required for daily life or event protection materials. This phenomenon can also be partially attributed to the performance of the individual need for structure. Due to the lack of a sense of control, individuals need to satisfy their internal needs for control and order through the possession of tangible material resources, which leads to their irrational purchasing behavior. These typical symptoms (belief in conspiracy theories, spreading rumors, moral concerns, and irrational hoarding) can also be explained by other social psychological theories to some extent. For example, by analyzing an individual’s fear of death and the worldview defense process used to overcome this fear, terror management theory can explain an individual’s focus on moral values. Similarly, the uncertainty management theory and meaning maintenance model can also explain some psychological and behavioral reactions of individuals in public emergencies. However, we believe that compensatory control theory has a unique advantage in understanding the above phenomena. This is because it has a clearer definition of antecedents (lack of perceived control) and consequences (need for structure) and shows a wide range of explanatory power and cross-cultural applicability. We suggest that in future studies, people’s psychological and behavioral responses to public emergencies should be further explored from the perspective of compensatory control. In addition, future research should delve deeper to explore this issue from theoretical, empirical, and practical perspectives.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Visual perspective taking indicates that people understand whether others can see an object or what they have seen. In visual perspective taking, people see things from others’ perspectives. Visual perspective taking is the foundation of cognitive development and also the starting point and premise of social interaction. However, ones’ information usually interferes with others’ perspectives. As a result, people who take others’ perspectives would use their perspectives to understand others. This will result in biases in visual perspective taking. These biases are usually induced by ones’ information, which is known as the egocentric bias. Egocentric bias plays an important role in unsuccessful social interaction. However, its inner mechanisms are still under debate. Specifically, the inhibitive selection model and fluency misattribution theory hold different statements on the emergence of the egocentric bias. The inhibitive selection model holds that when understanding others’ perspectives, participants need to inhibit their perspectives and deal with the conflicts between their perspectives and others’ perspectives. This inhibitive selection is related to the executive function, especially the inhibitory control. The fluency misattribution theory holds that when understanding others’ perspectives, people tend to erroneously attribute their perspectives to others’ perspectives, as their perspectives are more fluency in their minds. These two theories focus on different processes of visual perspective taking and then construct completely different theoretical approaches. The inhibitive selection model mainly focuses on the information inhibition process in the egocentric bias while ignores the information extraction and integration processes. On the contrary, the fluency misattribution theory focuses on the influence of extracting and integrating misinformation in the egocentric bias while ignores the influence of the information inhibition process. Therefore, this divergence in their theoretical approaches also suggests that the above-mentioned theories may not fully reveal the mechanisms of the egocentric bias. The present review will try to integrate the debates between the inhibitive selection model and fluency misattribution theory. Specifically, we first review the paradigms of the level-1 and level-2 visual perspective taking according to the processing level and complexity of visual perspective taking to examine the mechanisms of the egocentric bias. We found that the level-1 visual perspective taking is usually measured by the dot-probe paradigm. The level-2 visual perspective taking is usually measured by the own-body transformation task, director task, and ambiguous number paradigm. Then, we examine what factors may affect inhibitive selection and misattribution to find what factors may affect the egocentric bias. Furthermore, the inhibition-attribution collaboration model is proposed for the first time to bridge the gap between the inhibitive selection model and fluency misattribution theory. The inhibition-attribution collaboration model hypothesizes that the inhibitive selection model, which emphasizes the inhibitory process, and the fluency misattribution theory, which emphasizes the integration process, may not be mutually exclusive. These processes may jointly result in egocentric bias. Specifically, when taking others’ perspectives with high uncertainty, people have difficulty in inferring others’ views and perspectives correctly. In this case, the inhibitive selection model and fluency misattribution may result in egocentric bias through three processing pathways. Future studies should further test this model using the sophisticated paradigms on special groups of participants to explore how to improve social interaction by reducing egocentric bias.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： How do people process and communicate spatial information with others in spatial dialogue is a widely studied issue in the domain of spatial cognition. People would think about spatial relationships and try to communicate with others to achieve goals together, such as plan to get from point A to point B. The scholars have found that there is a common phenomenon in spatial dialogue that people who communicate with their partners in spatial dialogue will achieve alignment at different representational levels, such as spatial terms, spatial frames of reference, and viewing perspectives. In particular, the listeners would repeat the spatial representation what their partners used in previous dialogue. Why the alignment of spatial representations can be achieved？According to the Interaction Alignment model and the Common Point Theory, It’s because that people want to achieve the lowest cost of collaboration. The physiological basis for realizing representational alignment is the consistency of the neural activities of the speakers and listeners. There are two factors that affect the alignment of representations in spatial dialogues, one is the physical characteristics of the spatial scene, and the other is the collaboration between people. In terms of the former, the spatial layout of objects will affect the degree of alignment of representations. A spatial layout with a certain internal structure will strengthen the alignment of representations and promote a other-centric representation. And speakers prefer to provide their partners clear direction information based on functional relationship to clarify the location and direction of the object in space. In terms of the latter, firstly, there is an obvious language initiation phenomenon in the alignment of spatial language representations. Secondly, the assessment of the relative spatial cognition of the partners affects how the interlocutors actually represent the spatial relationship. Finally, the relative body position of the partner also affects the way the spatial representation is selected. In the future, we can continue to explore the mechanism of representation alignment. For example, researchers can develop a more ecologically valid spatial collaboration paradigm, such as investigate the neural mechanisms of online spatial dialogue with fMRI, event-related potentials and other technologies. Furthermore, researchers can explore the relationship between representation alignment and individual spatial preferences. Moreover, scholars can also examine the how people encode and represent spatial relationships in spatial dialogue.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： In the past 40 years, researchers have explored and constructed diverse definitions and components of wisdom. They have gradually reached a consensus that wisdom is the application of meta-cognition to reason and solve problems based on the morality. Wisdom is also closely related to individual life experience, personal growth and even physical maturity. Therefore, wisdom can be defined as a psychological quality that integrates intelligence with morality. Among the measurements of wisdom applied in old age, the self-reported scales mainly include the three-dimensional wisdom scale (3D-WS), self-assessed wisdom scale (SAWS), and the adult self-transcendence inventory (ASTI), the performance-based methods mainly include the Berlin wisdom paradigm and the wisdom reasoning. According to the results, wisdom in old age is relatively well, but there may not be a linear relationship between the aging and the increasing of wisdom in the middle and late adulthood, the cognitive or knowledge components of wisdom reach a peak at a certain age (such as 50 to 55 years old), and after that they begin to decline, and the reflective and emotional components of wisdom will not decline, due to the growth of psychosocial development and perspective-taking ability, emotional regulation, and empathy or compassionate for others, they will even increase with age. Therefore, aging may not be a necessary or sufficient condition for wisdom. Studies have shown that micro-factors such as the challenges in life experience, critical life events, and social changes encountered in the life course of individual are external factors that may promote the development of wisdom in the old age; psychological resources such as sense of control, personal growth, emotional regulation, openness to experience and exploratory self-reflection that contribute to the development of individual meta-cognition are internal factors that may promote the development of wisdom in the old age; meanwhile, the orientation of pro-social moral value, the subjective motivation of pursuing the growth of wisdom or the meaning in life may be the important intermediary mechanism for learning wisdom from life experience. Wisdom can significantly and positively predict the quality of life in the old, and can help the old people obtain life goals and sense of control, which having more important impact on their well-being. Wisdom can also act as a mediating or moderating role to buffer or reduce the negative impact of negative factors on the life satisfaction and well-being of the old, thereby relieving the solitude and oppression, alleviating the feelings of loneliness, depression, and social alienation in the old age. There are still some limitations in the psychological research on the wisdom in old age: First, whether wisdom increases, declines or remains stable in the later stages of adulthood, the conclusions still rely on the definition, conceptualization and measurement of wisdom; secondly, the researches on the antecedents of the wisdom in the old age fail to reveal the internal mechanism of the relevant resources in the development of wisdom; thirdly, the researches on the consequences of the wisdom in the old age fail to reveal the interventional roles of wisdom or different components of wisdom; finally, there are still lack of specific and operable interventions and cultivation methods for promoting wisdom. In the future, it is necessary to develop the measurement tools that integrate various sources based on self-reporting and behavioral performance measurement, and balance the content of natural wisdom and humanistic wisdom; examine the development trajectory of individual wisdom and its psychological mechanism in the life course; conduct the longitudinal researches and experimental researches to in-depth research on the causal relationship between wisdom and well-being and the positive functions of wisdom; continue to explore the interventional conditions and promoting measures for the wisdom of the old in the practice of old care services in community, thus inspire the wisdom of the old people and promote their successful aging.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： With the development of embodiment, it is widely recognized that the body may be the key to shaping advanced cognitive functions (e.g., memory). The research of embodied memory aims at exploring the role of the body and its sensorimotor process in memory. The manipulation or restriction of the physical state, embodied characteristics or availability of the body would affect the efficiency, valence and content of memory. The intrinsic mechanisms can be explained by several assumptions, including the encoding specificity principle, the priming effect, the metaphor representation theory and the reactivation hypothesis. However, there is still no a consensus on the mechanisms. This review focuses on the commonalities of existing research and theories, and aims to explain the mechanism by which the body acts on memory under one framework. There are three steps in the current work. Firstly, four experimental paradigms based on the experimental operations of the embodied memory research are summarized: (a) The simulation paradigm, which simulates the initial state by adopting body postures consistent with the encoding stage to influence memory retrieval. (b) The priming paradigm, which influences memory retrieval by priming the social meaning of body postures or facial expressions. (c) The metaphorical paradigm, which impacts the efficiency and content of memory retrieval by activating the emotional valence of vertical spatial movement (e.g., good is up, bad is down). (d)The reverse validation paradigm, in which the embodied effect disappears by performing interfering gestures in the encoding or retrieval stage to hinder the mental simulation. Then, based on the way that embodied operations act on memory and the perspective of theoretical explanation, it is found that the core of embodied memory lies in reactivation. Therefore, on the basis of the sensory-motor simulation model of embodied cognition, a sensorimotor simulation model of embodied memory, which emphasizes the role of reactivation and explains the psychological process of embodied operation on memory, is proposed. Specifically, an individual can manipulate the availability and physical state of his or her body to act on the encoding and extraction stages, respectively, or manipulate the embodied characteristics of the body to act on the extraction stage alone. Thus, the extraction stage can reactivate the perceptual and motor information of the encoding process, which facilitates the extraction of information. It is worth noting that this reactivation has several constraints: The first is the memory task. Task specificity will affect the degree to which the embodied operation activates the memory. The more specific the task is, the lower level of embodied activation in memory is. The second is the embodied operation. Compared with the simple, automatic, routine, and lower cognitive resource-requiring embodied operations, complex, intentional, unfamiliar, and higher cognitive operations have less impact on memory. The last one is the way of recall. In contrast to general recall, the more specific the recall task is, the lower the impact of embodied activation in memory is. More multi-dimensional theoretical and applied work is encouraged to explore the stability and underlying mechanisms of embodied memory. Specifically, it is necessary to strictly control the parataxis with the original experiment (i.e., adding embodied variables is to activate a certain psychological state in the original encoding and thus affect the memory results), rather than hypotaxis (i.e., adding physical variables is enough to explore the relationship between body and memory) to conduct repetitive research to improve the reliability of results. In addition to that, transforming the three-dimensional direct activation of one’s own embodied operations into a two-dimensional indirect activation of others’ behaviors by mirror neurons can explore the impact of the body on memory under the “quiet” condition. Finally, future research can also control the valence and content of memory by manipulating the different sensorimotor patterns of the body. This effort may indirectly adjust the individual’s cognition and emotion, which in turn affect his/her behavior.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Mirror equivalence or invariance, also known as mirror generalization or symmetry generalization, is a perceptual property in which individuals regard the left-right mirror of a visual perception object as the same stimulus. Experimental evidence of animal behavior and human cognition shows that mirror equivalence or invariance is an evolutionary adaptive process of animal and human individuals to the bilateral symmetry of natural objects, which has obvious advantages in reducing cognitive learning load and survival pressure. Recent studies on cognitive neural mechanism finds that mirror equivalence or invariance is hierarchically processed in the ventral visual pathway of primates, and the fusiform gyrus cortex in the human brain is a key region for processing mirror equivalence or invariance information of objects or faces. Importantly, mirror equivalence or invariance may hinder the reading of script containing mirror characters, leading to mirror errors in the early reading for normal children. Therefore, it is necessary for readers to learn to use the inhibitory mechanism of “unlearning” of mirror generalization, so as to break the mirror equivalent or invariance and to acquire the ability of identifying the mirror characters. In this process, the left fusiform gyrus cortex gradually develops into the VWFA capable of recognizing mirror characters, but it still exhibits mirror equivalence or invariance for objects or faces. This is consistent with the neuronal recycling hypothesis, i.e., learning to read must occupy neurons in the left fusiform gyrus previously used for object or face processing. Furthermore, developmental dyslexia children (DD) have difficulty in inhibition of mirror generalization, suggesting the mechanism of breaking mirror equivalence or invariance may be abnormal in DD. Therefore, exploring the cognitive neural mechanism on breaking the mirror equivalent or invariance is important for elucidating the brain plasticity of learning to read. In this paper, we first briefly discuss the evolutionary adaptive theory of mirror equivalence or invariance and early related behavioral and cognitive study evidence. Then we systematically review recent evidence on the hierarchical processing of mirror equivalence or invariance in the ventral visual pathway, the role of the fusiform gyrus cortex of human brain in the process of mirror equivalence or invariance, the cognitive neural mechanism on breaking the mirror equivalent or invariance during learning to read, and the difficulty in mirror generalization inhibition and related brain network abnormality in DD. We propose that the interaction between the left fusiform gyrus or the VWFA and the early visual cortex, the parietal cortex and the brain network of spoken language may be an important neural basis for learning to use the inhibitory mechanism of mirror generalization for breaking the mirror equivalence or invariance. Future studies are needed to focus on the role of the two hemispheres and their commissure fibers in mirror equivalence or invariance processing, the detailed processing mechanism of mirror generalization and inhibition, the influence of mirror generalization and inhibition on mirror writing, and the mirror generalization processing of Chinese characters in normal Chinese children.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Collective narcissism is the group-level equivalent of individual narcissism and is currently defined as the belief that one's own group is exceptional and entitled to privileged treatment but it is not sufficiently recognized by others. Current research findings show that it has relatively strong explanatory power for intergroup hostility, because collective narcissists are hypersensitive to threats to their in-group image, status, or identity, and are prone to overestimate threats and suspect out-groups; and that lacking sense of self-worth and personal control is one important source of collective narcissism. After reviewing the past research on collective narcissism, combined with latest progress in the field of individual narcissism, this paper proposes several important questions that remain to be investigated in the field of collective narcissism. First, does collective narcissism necessarily entail vulnerability? Currently, collective narcissism tends to be understood as collective self-esteem that is contingent on admiration and recognition from others. This suggests that collective narcissists are generally conceived to be fragile internally, in that it is because of the vulnerability implicit in their own beliefs—or in other words, their own lack of confidence in their in-group's exceptional image—that they are prone to demand external affirmation or recognition. However, vulnerability may not be a necessary attribute of collective narcissism because there may be collective narcissism that is not fragile, just as there may be individual narcissism that is not fragile. Therefore, researchers may consider appropriately narrowing the connotation of collective narcissism to expand its denotation so as to explore more diverse forms of collective narcissism, such as collective narcissism with and without vulnerability. Second, is the structure of collective narcissism one-dimensional? If not, what dimensions does it have? Although the most widely used collective narcissism scale has a one-dimensional structure, recent studies have developed and validated collective narcissism scales with a multidimensional structure. These studies are preliminary, however, and only suggest it is necessary to carry out multidimensional exploration. As for the exact structure of collective narcissism, further exploration is needed. And future research should not only explore the dimensions of collective narcissism, but also explore the sub-dimensions of both of vulnerable collective narcissism and grandiose collective narcissism. Third, are the consequences of collective narcissism always negative? The vast majority of current research has focused on revealing the negative effects of collective narcissism, and very few studies have directly examined and found positive effects of collective narcissism. However, according to E. Fromm's classical theoretical view, collective narcissism may also have its benign forms within certain limits, just as individual narcissism may also have an adaptive side. Therefore, future research should explore the effects of collective narcissism from a more complete theoretical perspective, and especially, examine more the positive effects of collective narcissism. Finally, does collective narcissism stem simply from frustrated individual needs? Although studies in recent years have begun to investigate the causes of collective narcissism, these studies largely focus on individual motivational factors and fail to examine them together with factors such as cognitions and sociocultural contexts. Future research may draw on ideas from theories such as system justification theory, social identity theory, and self-categorization theory to explore a more complete explanation for the phenomenon of collective narcissism. In summary, after more than a decade of research, there are still many theoretically meaningful questions in the field of collective narcissism that deserve further exploration. And in today's world, such exploration also has profound practical significance, and it may bring a wealth of insights into how to deal with the struggles of various social groups for recognition.
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