Subjects: Psychology >> Medical Psychology submitted time 2023-11-02
Abstract： Memory is stored in the strength changes of synaptic connections between neurons, and neurotransmitters play a crucial role in regulating synaptic plasticity. Neurons expressing specific types of neurotransmitters can form distinct neurotransmitter systems, including the dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, and glutamatergic systems. Studies on the destabilization processes of various types of memories have revealed the important role of acetylcholine in memory destabilization triggered by the retrieval of novel associative information. The resistance of high-intensity fear memories to destabilization and reconsolidation is attributed to the activation of the noradrenergic-locus coeruleus system during the encoding process of such fear memories. Other important neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and serotonin, also exert influences on memory plasticity at different stages of memory formation. Neurotransmitters play significant roles in fear memory destabilization and reconsolidation, but these effects are typically not independent; rather, they involve interactions and mutual regulation, such as dopamine-cholinergic interactions and serotonin-glutamate interactions. Furthermore, this summary elaborates on the roles of the aforementioned neurotransmitters in memory reconsolidation and their interactions. The study of neurotransmitters at the molecular level can provide valuable insights for the investigation of interventions targeting fear memory reconsolidation. In the future, research should continue to explore the key factors and methods underlying fear memory destabilization based on the molecular mechanisms of memory destabilization and the role of neurotransmitters, to improve the clinical treatment of PTSD based on the reconsolidation intervene.
Peer Review Status:
Awaiting Review
Subjects: Psychology >> Medical Psychology submitted time 2023-11-01
Abstract： According to the error-driven learning theory, the mismatch between expected outcome of behavior and actual result, known as “Prediction error” or PE, is the driving factor of new learning. Prediction error differs from other types of salience, such as physical salience, surprise, or novelty, in terms of distinct periods of information processing, as well as in its relationship with memory updating. The reconsolidation interference paradigm has been shown to be effective in neutralizing conditioned fear memory in humans, where the prediction error involved in memory reactivation is required to reactivate memory for reconsolidation. In the behavioral mechanisms of PE in promoting fear memory updating, it is found that PE is a necessary but not sufficient condition of memory destabilization. Memory reactivation must include appropriate degree of PE; however, properties of the memory must be taken into account when determining the fate of memory following reactivation, which could be destabilization, extinction or limbo. In the neural mechanism of PE in fear memory updating, amygdala, periaqueductal gray (PAG) and hippocampus are found to play an important part in PE detection and computation. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) and its subregions play a crucial role in the process of PE-initiated memory reconsolidation. Furthermore, some essential neurotransmitters in the nervous system are involved in this process, notably dopamine and glutamate. In the future, quantitative investigations based on statistical calculation models of PE need to be conducted to explore the interactions between PE and other boundary conditions on memory reconsolidation. The role of different types of salience in memory reconsolidation is also worth investigating. In addition, individual difference in PE’s role in updating fear memories must be taken into account to facilitate clinical translations. In both basic research and therapeutic intervention attempts, we feel that multidisciplinary techniques and procedures are essential for elucidating the processes underlying the involvement of PE in fear memory reconsolidation and updating.
Subjects: Psychology >> Applied Psychology submitted time 2023-05-30
Abstract： Previous studies have found that participants benefit more from blocked learning in rule#2;based category learning but perform better with interleaved learning in information-integration category learning. In interleaved learning, participants need to generate four categories at the same time, which will create a high working memory load if applying a rule-based learning strategy and hence will encourage participants to switch from this sub-optimal strategy to information integration. However, previous studies always require passive conduct of blocked learning or interleaved learning. But in real life, people will strategically switch between these two kinds of learning schedules. To grasp a better understanding, we compared passive and proactive learning schedules (blocked, interleaved, self-regulated, random). In addition, the categories used in previous studies are mutually exclusive, which contradicts real life where categories always overlapped each other and cannot be perfectly distinguished according to one or more combinations of features. For mutually exclusive structures, it is easy to confuse rule-based and information-integrated learners, and there is a countable difference in the learning speed of these two category structures. To gain more reliable results, an appropriate overlap level and the number of categories were chosen for this study. The classical four categories rule-based and information integration task is revised to contain overlapping stimuli. If classified by both two dimensions the highest accuracy was 90%. A 2 × 4 between-subject design was adopted. The dependent variables are accuracy and response time, and the first independent variable was the category structure: rule-based (RB) and information#2;integration (II). The second variable was the schedule of learning: blocked, interleaved, self#2;regulated, and random, with random presentation as the baseline condition. 265 college students were paid to participate in the experiment. Each participant should observe and report to which categories the line segment belonged. There were 100 trials each for both the learning phase and the test phase. Each phase comprised 25 trials for each category. For the test phase, a new set of stimuli are used and no feedback is provided. The behavioral data collected fit into a mathematical model to analyze what strategies participants used during tasks. The results showed a significant main effect of category structure. That is, the classification accuracy of the information-integration task is significantly higher than the rule-based task. The main effect of learning schedules was also significant. That is, the classification accuracy of interleaved, self-regulated, and random learning was significantly higher than that of blocked learning. Post hoc tests showed that the classification accuracy of the blocked learning was significantly lower than that of interleaved, self-regulated, and random learning under rule-based conditions. For the information-integration condition, the classification accuracy of the blocked learning was significantly lower than that of self-regulated. In addition, this study further analyzed learners' self-regulated learning behaviors under the overlapping category structure and found that for both rule-based tasks and information-integration tasks, learners' average length of blocked learning was significantly negatively correlated with their classification accuracy. A mathematical technique of the “Decision Bound Model” was used to analyze the data from the experiment. The results of model fitting showed that in both rule-based and information-integration tasks, self#2;regulated learners can use the optimal strategy more frequently. In conclusion, this study makes up for the deficiency of perfectly classified categories, finds the advantages of self-regulated learning and the disadvantages of blocked learning in category overlap, and preliminarily reveals the self-regulated learning advantages and information processing characteristics of overlapping category learning. it believes that category overlap interferes with the corresponding rules formed by learners for each category under the condition of blocking learning, which is not conducive to the blocked learning of rule-based tasks. In addition, the overlapping category structure will weaken the different information between categories and retain the common information within categories, which is not conducive to the interleaved learning of information-integration tasks. However, compared with passive learning, self#2;regulated learning has advantages in the learning of the two types of category structure because of its "decision-driven" and "data-driven" effects.
Subjects: Psychology >> Developmental Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： The memory reconsolidation theory holds that consolidated memories can be reactivated into an unstable state again, which is called the reconsolidation process. During this period, the activated memories are susceptive to new information and therefore, the interruption of it can update or eliminate original memories. Behavioral or pharmacological interventions after memory reactivation are proved to be an effective way to extinguish fear memories and prevent relapse. The behavioral intervention, which is the so-called retrieval-extinction paradigm can eliminate conditioned fear through applying extinction training during the reconsolidation time window. The neural mechanisms of this effect, however, are still largely unknown. Based on reviewing present studies in animals and humans, we concluded the critical brain areas which were proved to be playing an important part in retrieval extinction process and their effect mechanisms, including hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and amygdala. Furthermore, we summarized the controversial points in theories and manipulations in order to provide insights for future explorations.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： It is generally considered that the human brain will generate distinct neural representations corresponding to different mental processes. Exploring the differences of neural representations under various mental activities is one of the core issues in cognitive neuroscience. During recent decades, researchers have used different neuroimaging techniques to record brain activities involved in complex cognitive processes from the perspective of temporal or spatial measurement. Among these techniques, the non-invasive EEG/MEG with temporal resolution of millisecond has become a popular one to study the time courses of various cognitive activities. Due to the characteristics of EEG/MEG data (e.g., low S/N), in order to obtain relatively reliable results, traditional EEG/MEG studies mainly focused on the neural responses after group averaging, paying less attention to individual differences. Such method assumes that, for each subject, the amplitudes and directions of ERPs/ERMFs and their topographic maps in a specific time window of interest exhibit a consistent pattern under an experimental condition. In the case of poor consistency, the neural responses across subjects may cancel each other to a great extent after group averaging, which makes it difficult to get a reasonable interpretation. In recent years, researchers have introduced two techniques commonly used in fMRI studies, classification algorithms in machine learning (i.e., classification-based decoding) and representation similarity analysis, into the EEG/MEG data analysis. These two new techniques can overcome the shortcomings of traditional EEG/MEG data analysis based on averaging of voltage/magnetic flux density waveforms by taking individual differences into account, which could be used to reveal the coding of neural representation at individual level and provide a new idea to explore how the brain encodes specific neural representations dynamically. In the study of ERPs/ERMFs, classification-based decoding and representation similarity analysis can be used to explore not only the neural mechanisms that show consistent patterns along time among individuals, but also those that are significantly different across individuals but keep stable for a given individual. Thus, these two techniques are able to reveal specific neural representation patterns and even identify "brain fingerprints" at individual levels. Based on different methodological theories, these two techniques provide novel ways for EEG/MEG studies to compare representational differences of cognitive processes across time windows, tasks, modalities, and groups. Firstly, we systematically introduced the principles and operational processes of classification-based decoding and representation similarity analysis, together with a comparison with those traditional analysis methods of EEG/MEG. Then, the EEG/MEG studies to date using these two techniques are reviewed. Finally, some possible future research directions with regard to these two techniques are proposed.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Social learning refers to the belief updates of others’ personal attributes and intentions as well as social norms under various circumstances during social interactions, which helps to optimize social decision-making and maintain positive social interactions. Due to its critical role in human decisions and social interactions, the past years have witnessed a growing body of studies that examine computational and neural basis of social learning combining computational models and human brain imaging techniques. The current literature indicates that human social learning can be well captured by reinforcement learning model and Bayesian model. In the framework of reinforcement learning models, an active agent adaptively adjusts his behaviors according to the feedback in social interactions to achieve a certain goal, with positive feedback will increasing the possibility of the previous behavior and negative feedback weakening it. Accordingly, social learning mainly engages the computation of subjective expectation and prediction error. Consistent with the findings in nonsocial learning, these computations involve brain regions associated with reward and punishment processing (e.g., the ventral striatum and ventromedial prefrontal cortex). Notably, in social situations, brain regions associated with social cognition (e.g., the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and the temporal-parietal junctions) are also involved due to the inference of the traits and intentions of others. Although reinforcement learning models provide powerful explanations for social learning processes, they did not account for the representation of social uncertainty. Instead, the Bayesian models assume that the social learning process follows the Bayesian information updating, and the perceived uncertainty is represented in the posterior distribution of psychological variables. Therefore, the Bayesian models can depict the representation of uncertainty. People represent their prior beliefs about others and calculate the deviation between actual feedback and prior beliefs, which is similar to the representation of subjective expectations and expected errors respectively in reinforcement learning style. In addition, representation of uncertainty and information integration are involved, engaging brain regions associated with reward and punishment processing, social cognition, and cognitive control (e.g., dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). However, it should be noted that there is no one-to-one mapping between computational processes and brain regions, rather, it is in a many-to-many-pattern, that is, a single cognitive process involves multiple brain regions, and a specific brain region can be involved in multiple calculations. Therefore, multivoxel pattern analysis and brain network analysis should be utilized in future studies to reveal how different computational processes are implemented in large-scale networks according to systems neuroscience. Moreover, future studies should try to increase the ecological validity by creating real social interactions between people and by leveraging novel neuroimaging approaches (e.g. hyperscanning techniques). Finally, more efforts are needed to unravel the neural and computational signatures of implicit social learning.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-28 Cooperative journals: 《心理科学进展》
Abstract： Auditory language comprehension plays an important role in interpersonal communication in daily life, however, we still do not fully understand its underlying neural mechanisms. Electrical brain stimulation (EBS) is an experimental technique with a very long history but has only recently been widely used on human subjects. By performing electrical stimulation, analyzing the induced transient behavioral functional changes and recording the neural activity, it is possible to directly reveal the functional roles within brain regions and the effective connections between brain areas during auditory language processing. Electrical brain stimulation offers a very high spatial and temporal resolution and employs recording electrodes that can reach deep into subcortical areas. Given these unique advantages, electrical brain stimulation has received increasing research interest in recent years. Auditory language processing is a fairly complex process and involves a wide range of brain areas. In general, the process of auditory language processing in the brain is as follows: incoming speech from the external environment enters the thalamus, which then passes to the auditory cortex (AC) for primary processing of acoustic-phonological information, followed by more advanced language processing in the temporal and frontal language areas. In addition, frontal language areas may also generate speech-related predictions that feedback to temporal language areas to facilitate auditory language processing. Electrical brain stimulation allows relatively flexible cortical or subcortical stimulation in subjects who were performing an auditory language task. By comparing the differences in task performance before and after electrical stimulation, the relationship between stimulated brain areas and cognitive function could be analyzed and thus the distribution of functionally relevant areas could be mapped. Besides, electrical brain stimulation, as a means to reflect effective connections between brain areas, can also reveal the functional connections during auditory language processing. Therefore, this paper, from the perspective of auditory language processing, is divided into three parts: thalamus and auditory cortex, auditory language processing within auditory cortex, and higher language cortex and auditory cortex. By reviewing the available studies on electrical brain stimulation during auditory language processing, the functional characteristics of the brain areas involved in auditory language processing and the information transfer mechanisms between different brain areas are summarized, providing a new perspective for further exploring the mechanisms of auditory language processing and the application of electrical brain stimulation techniques in the study of brain function. Electrical brain stimulation has broad application prospects in auditory language research, and the increased application of this technique will also bring more causal evidence on the brain function and connectivity, providing the possibility of further understanding the neural mechanisms of auditory language processing.
Subjects: Psychology >> Social Psychology submitted time 2023-03-27 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Women are more susceptible to disorders of fear and anxiety than men, with the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) two-to three-fold higher in women. Whereas normal fear responses are triggered by trauma-associated cues, in disorders such as PTSD, fear is also elicited in neutral or safe cues. Hence, fear over-generalization has been put forward as a potential etiological factor of PTSD and other anxiety disorders. Therefore, in this study, we examined whether women show stronger fear generalization than men, and are there any differences between women and man in the extinction of fear generalization. The answers to such questions could provide a new perspective on the severe prevalence of anxiety disorders in women. Forty-five college students participated in this study. Three participants’ data were deleted for technical failure, leaving forty-two participants’ (Female: 22, Male: 20) data in analysis finally. The experiment consisted of two phases: acquisition, and generalization. 10 rings of gradually increasing size were served as conditioned stimuli (CS) and generalization stimuli (GS). The rings in the two extreme sizes were as the conditioned danger cue (CS+) and conditioned safety cue (CS−), respectively. The eight intermediately sized rings were served as four classes of generalization stimuli (i.e., GS1, GS2, GS3, and GS4), with GS4 being the most similar one to CS+ in size. A 500ms-electric stimulus served as unconditioned stimulus (US). CS+ was probably paired with US, while CS− and GS were unpaired with US. During the experiment, US online expectancy ratings and skin conductance responses (SCR) were recorded. The results showed that women had longer extinction duration of fear generalization than men, while there were no sex differences in generalization gradient. Such results were proved in the indexes of both online expectancy ratings and SCR. In the index of online expectancy ratings, both women and men generalized fear into GS3 and GS4. In the fear extinction of GS3, there were no sex difference and both genders extinguished generalized fear in Block3. As for GS4, women extinguished fear from Block5 while males were from Block3, which indicted that women need more time in generalization extinction. The conclusions above were also found in SCR. Both women and men transferred fear to GS4, but there had sex differences in the extinction of fear generalization. Men extinguished the fear of GS4 from Block3, while women were from Block4. The results of SCR also indicated that the women had longer extinction duration of fear generalization than men. The theory of behavioral inhibition was supported by this study, for the sex differences of fear generalization only occurring in generalization extinction but not generalization gradient. Given the role of fear generalization in anxiety disorders, our findings suggest that longer generalization extinction may contribute to the higher risk of anxiety disorders in women. Additionally, our findings also have potential value for treatments of anxiety disorders among women in clinical.
Subjects: Psychology >> Cognitive Psychology submitted time 2022-07-10
Abstract：探究不同心智活动下的神经表征差异，是认知神经科学关注的核心问题之一。早期的脑电/脑磁分析方法主要关注组平均后的神经响应水平，这要求在关注的时间进程上，各个被试在相同刺激条件下事件相关电位/事件相关磁场的振幅大小和方向、以及地形图分布和极性均要有较高的一致性。近些年来，研究者们将功能性磁共振成像研究中常用到的两种技术机器学习中的分类算法(即基于分类的解码)和表征相似性分析引入到了脑电/脑磁数据分析中。这两种新技术可以克服传统脑电/脑磁数据基于具体电压/磁感应强度波形平均分析的缺点，具有在个体水平上探究神经表征编码的特点，为人们探究大脑在不同时间进程上如何对特定的神经表征信息进行动态编码提供了新的思路。两种技术基于不同的方法学原理来抽提个体间一致的脑认知加工机制，还为脑电/脑磁研究开展跨时域、跨任务、跨模态、跨群体比较不同认知过程中的表征差异提供了更多新颖的途径。我们首先通过与传统的脑电/脑磁分析方法进行比较，系统性介绍了基于分类的解码和表征相似性分析的原理和操作流程，之后对两种方法的应用场景进行了梳理，并在最后对未来可供研究的方向提出了我们的见解。
Peer Review Status:Awaiting Review
Subjects: Psychology >> Cognitive Psychology submitted time 2021-05-10
Abstract： "
Peer Review Status:Awaiting Review
Subjects: Psychology >> Medical Psychology submitted time 2021-02-05
Abstract： Under the framework of Reconsolidation Interference of conditioned fear memory, Prediction Error (PE) is demonstrated as a necessary condition of memory destabilization. However, the role of PE in destabilizing fear memories of different strength is unclear. The degree of PE that is needed to effectively reactivate fear memory may be changeable according to the strength of memory. It is unknown whether the PE used to reactivate weak memories is still valid in retrieving enhanced memories. Besides, explorations of possible solutions are rare if strong memories are resistant to undergoing reconsolidation. Among factors that are possible to help to overcome the boundary condition, the effects of stress hormone are worth exploring. However, the manipulation of fear strength in human studies in the laboratory has not been well developed. Thus, the present study has three main aims: (1) based on previous results in animal studies, we tested the effect of fear memory strength manipulation in the laboratory settings in humans; (2) to examine the effect of PE during reactivation on destabilizing different strength memories and (3) to test the possible influence of post-reactivation exogenous stress to the retrieval-extinction of fear memories. The three days retrieval-extinction paradigm was adopted in the present study. We manipulated the memory strength through two kinds of acquisition procedures on the first day, which varied the predictability of the unconditioned stimulus (US) occurrence after the conditioned stimulus (CS). 24 hours later, a reminder contained a single PE was used to reactivate memories, then followed by a stress task (Social Evaluate Cold Pressor test, SECPT) or not before extinction. After 24 hours, a test of spontaneous recovery and reinstatement was utilized to measure the return of fear in each condition. All participants were divided into three conditions: CS-Predictable US_no Stress Group, CS-Unpredictable US_no Stress Group and the CS-Unpredictable US_Stress Group. The skin conductance response (SCR) and fear-potentiated startle response (FPS) were used as measurements of conditioned fear. The results showed that there was a relatively higher increase in fear response (SCR) from Day 1 to Day 2 in the CS-Unpredictable US condition than the CS-Predictable US condition, which may suggest the difference of memory strength among conditions. And for the weak fear memory (CS-predictable US), the reactivation that contained single PE and followed by extinction training can prevent the spontaneous recovery, especially on the SCR measurement. While in the enhanced memory condition (CS-unpredictable US), the extinguished memory had a distinct relapse in the memory test on the third day, which suggests the failure of memory destabilization. Furthermore, under this condition, if the acute stress task was adopted after reactivation, the return of fear would further increase, comparing with the no stress manipulation conditions. These results indicate that PE used to reactivate weak memories is insufficient to destabilize strong memories; and the post-reactivate acute stress cannot compensate this deficit caused by boundary conditions (e.g., strength). We further discussed possible interpretations of these results and the implications for the translation of retrieval-extinction to clinical practice and the cure of post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSD).
Peer Review Status:Awaiting Review
Subjects: Psychology >> Applied Psychology submitted time 2018-04-18 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Memories with a strong fear emotional connotation play a pathogenic role in a variety of emotional disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorder and phobia. So how to fundamentally eliminate the acquired fear memory and prevent relapse has been the difficulties of clinical treatment. The retrieval extinction paradigm, which is based on the memory reconsolidation theory, was demonstrated an effective and promising way in eliminating undesired memories. The key of this paradigm is how to retrieve fear memory to undergo reconsolidation, which makes the memory fragile and labile. Research has shown that when a mismatch between what is expected based on previous experiences and the actual state of events at retrieval, the prediction error will occur so that the memory will undergo reconsolidation. In the present study, we change CS-US (conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus) matching rules during the retrieval to manipulate the conditions of PE to explore whether the amount of PE is a crucial factor to open reconsolidation window. In the current study, two tones and four colored figures were used, one of the tones and two of the figures (CS+) were paired with a mild shock to the wrist (US) on 50% of the trails, while the other figures and tones were never paired with shock (CS−). the skin conductance response (SCR) was the measure of fear. Four groups of participants were fear conditioned on day1 using a 50% reinforcement schedule, in such a way that they could expect the CS to be followed by shock every other trial. During memory reactivation on day2, participants received one unreinforced CS+ (No PE group), two unreinforced CS+ (Negative PE group), two reinforced CS+ (Positive PE group) and four unreinforced CS+ (Multiple PE group) respectively, following extinction training. On day3, participants took part in tests of spontaneous recovery and reinstatement of fear through re-extinction and regaining. The results showed that the SCR was not significantly different among the four groups in the fear conditioning of the first day and extinction of the second day. However, on the third day, No PE group and Multiple PE group showed increased SCR in spontaneous fear recovery and reinstatement test, whereas Negative PE group and Positive PE group did not show any significant increased SCR in spontaneous fear recovery or reinstatement. Our study provided further evidence that the behavioral interference during reconsolidation (retrieval-extinction) can effectively eliminate fear and block fear relapse under certain circumstances. According to the results, we demonstrate that the prediction error is a necessary condition of initiating reconsolidation and a lack of prediction error during retrieval will leave the memory trace in an inactive state. Additionally, the amount of PE is a crucial factor and too much prediction error will cause failure. It is inferred that a limited degree of mismatch between the memory and events at the time of retrieval will induce memory destabilization.
Subjects: Psychology >> Cognitive Psychology submitted time 2018-03-22 Cooperative journals: 《心理学报》
Abstract： Memories with a strong fear emotional connotation play a pathogenic role in a variety of emotional disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety disorder and phobia. So how to fundamentally eliminate the acquired fear memory and prevent relapse has been the difficulties of clinical treatment. The retrieval extinction paradigm, which is based on the memory reconsolidation theory, was demonstrated an effective and promising way in eliminating undesired memories. The key of this paradigm is how to retrieve fear memory to undergo reconsolidation, which makes the memory fragile and labile. Research has shown that when a mismatch between what is expected based on previous experiences and the actual state of events at retrieval, the prediction error will occur so that the memory will undergo reconsolidation. In the present study, we change CS-US (conditioned stimulus-unconditioned stimulus) matching rules during the retrieval to manipulate the conditions of PE to explore whether the amount of PE is a crucial factor to open reconsolidation window. In the current study, two tones and four colored figures were used, one of the tones and two of the figures (CS+) were paired with a mild shock to the wrist (US) on 50% of the trails, while the other figures and tones were never paired with shock (CS−). the skin conductance response (SCR) was the measure of fear. Four groups of participants were fear conditioned on day1 using a 50% reinforcement schedule, in such a way that they could expect the CS to be followed by shock every other trial. During memory reactivation on day2, participants received one unreinforced CS+ (No PE group), two unreinforced CS+ (Negative PE group), two reinforced CS+ (Positive PE group) and four unreinforced CS+ (Multiple PE group) respectively, following extinction training. On day3, participants took part in tests of spontaneous recovery and reinstatement of fear through re-extinction and regaining. The results showed that the SCR was not significantly different among the four groups in the fear conditioning of the first day and extinction of the second day. However, on the third day, No PE group and Multiple PE group showed increased SCR in spontaneous fear recovery and reinstatement test, whereas Negative PE group and Positive PE group did not show any significant increased SCR in spontaneous fear recovery or reinstatement. Our study provided further evidence that the behavioral interference during reconsolidation (retrieval-extinction) can effectively eliminate fear and block fear relapse under certain circumstances. According to the results, we demonstrate that the prediction error is a necessary condition of initiating reconsolidation and a lack of prediction error during retrieval will leave the memory trace in an inactive state. Additionally, the amount of PE is a crucial factor and too much prediction error will cause failure. It is inferred that a limited degree of mismatch between the memory and events at the time of retrieval will induce memory destabilization
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